Origin of Christianity: Foundation of the World's Largest Religion
Discover the origin of Christianity, the world's largest religion with 2.8 billion followers, and delve into its profound global impact. It's part of the three major Abrahamic traditions, alongside Judaism and Islam. The term 'Christian' comes from the Greek word christos, meaning the Hebrew messiah or "anointed one." Initially, it referred to a group in 1st-century Israel known as Christianoi, or "followers of the Christ," who believed in Jesus of Nazareth as the prophesied messiah.
Furthermore, Christianity blends ancient Jewish beliefs with elements from the Roman Empire's culture. The Christian Bible blends the Old Testament with the New Testament, including gospels, Paul's letters, and Revelation. This article explores the roots of Christianity, tracing its journey from a 1st-century movement in Israel to becoming a distinct and globally impactful religion.
Foundation in the traditions of ancient Judaism
Ancient Judaism: A Shared Belief System
In ancient times, Judaism was intricately intertwined with the beliefs of neighboring cultures. They held the conviction that celestial forces of varying degrees directly impacted their daily existence.
Distinctive Practices of Ancient Jews
Setting themselves apart from others, ancient Jews adhered to unique practices. Their worship, defined by sacrifices, was distinct, guided by the command of their God of Israel. In addition, markers of ethnic identity included circumcision, dietary laws, and the observance of the Sabbath, a day of rest every seventh day.
Moses: Leader and Lawgiver
Ancient Judaism regarded Moses as a pivotal figure who actively received a direct law code from God. This code served to organize the Jews as a nation under the Law of Moses. Led by figures such as King David & Solomon, the Jews founded a kingdom in Canaan, building the Temple in Jerusalem (1000-920 BCE).
Trials and Tribulations of the Jews
The journey of ancient Jews was fraught with challenges. The Assyrian Empire conquered the Northern Kingdom of Israel in 722 BCE, initiating a series of national disasters. Subsequently, the Neo-Babylonian Empire's destruction of Jerusalem and the Temple in 587 BCE further tested the resilience of the Jewish community.
Prophetic Visions: Explanation and Hope
In the face of adversity, the prophets of Israel provided explanations, attributing the disasters to the integration of idolatry. Despite this, they offered a hopeful message. Anticipating divine intervention in the future, they envisioned a messiah from the lineage of King David. In these final days, there was an expectation for non-Jews to actively turn and worship the God of Israel.
A Vision of the Future: Restoration and Glory
The prophetic vision extended to a final battle against nations, with the eventual restoration of Israel to its former glory. Israel aimed to be a model righteous nation, elevating its God above all others and serving as a beacon for the world.
Employment in Ancient Greece and Rome
Rise Against Suppression: Maccabean Revolt Unleashed
In the 1st century BCE, the Jews found themselves under the rule of the Seleucid Empire, a time marked by the authoritative grip of King Antiochus Epiphanes (r. 175-164 BCE). His edicts not only forbade Jewish customs but also mandated sacrificial tributes to the gods of the Greek religion. Under oppression, the Jews, led by the resilient Hasmonean family, initiated the Maccabean Revolt, thus, expelling their oppressors.
This era brought two pivotal concepts to Judaism: martyrdom and instant resurrection to heaven (2 Maccabees).
Transition of Power: Roman Conquest and Diverse Responses
In 63 BCE, the narrative shifted with Rome's conquest of Judea. This pivotal moment prompted varied responses from distinct Jewish sects—the Pharisees, Sadducees, Essenes, and Zealots. While these groups shared fundamental traditions, their paths diverged in response to the new oppressor and the prevailing culture of the Roman Empire.
Messianic Dreams and the Iron Hand of Roman Retribution
As the 1st century CE unfolded, a wave of messianic contenders sought to stir rebellion during festive gatherings. However, Rome's customary response was ruthless: leaders and their followers faced brutal suppression. Advocating a kingdom challenging Rome meant facing crucifixion as punishment for treason in Roman eyes.
In this saga of defiance, suffering, and hope, the Jews left an indelible mark on the ancient world's historical canvas.
Jesus of Nazareth
Galilean Gathering and Prophetic Declarations
In Galilee, Jesus, an itinerant preacher, captivated a gathering of Jews with his sermons. Mirroring Israel's prophetic tradition, he boldly announced the imminent kingdom, pledging divine intervention and justice for all. Additionally, as a symbolic gesture representing the twelve tribes of Israel, Jesus handpicked twelve disciples to accompany him.
The Fame of Miracles and Messianic Declarations
According to the gospels scribed between 70-100 CE, Jesus gained renown for his miraculous feats. His followers hailed him as the long-awaited messiah, passionately embracing his teachings. The narratives unfold with a pivotal journey to Jerusalem during Passover (c. 30-33 CE), where Jesus faced trial before the Sanhedrin, the ruling council in Jerusalem, accused of challenging Temple practices. Condemned, Pilate, the Roman procurator, crucified him for claiming kingship among the Jews.
From Trial to Liturgy: The Crucifixion in Christian Rituals
The trial and crucifixion of Jesus transcended historical events to become an integral part of Christian liturgy. Each year, during Easter Week, believers reenact these significant moments. This sect of Jews, distinctive in their messianic allegiance to Jesus, upheld a unique belief—their proclaimed messiah, despite being killed, rose from the dead on the Sunday following his crucifixion. In the Gospel of Luke, he ascended bodily to heaven, distinguishing this sect. They also believed followers would share in the resurrection of the dead.
The Unfulfilled Kingdom and Anticipation of Return
A profound challenge faced the gospel writers: during Jesus' earthly existence, the prophesied kingdom had not materialized. Early followers grappled with this, conceptualizing the parousia ("second appearance"), envisioning Jesus's return to earth in the future. This expectation, still held by modern Christians, anticipates the fulfillment of prophetic predictions and the return of Christ.
Missions to the Gentiles
Empowered Missionaries: The Spread of Jesus' Message
During the Jewish Pentecost feast, as narrated in Acts of the Apostles 2, the disciples experienced a transformative moment. The Holy Spirit descended upon them, empowering them to carry Jesus' message to other cities as missionaries. Thus, baptism, symbolizing repentance and turning to God, became the rite of initiation, a tradition initiated by the contemporary of Jesus, John the Baptist.
Unexpected Turn: Gentile Influx and Decision in Jerusalem
As the initial Christian missionaries ventured into new cities, they were taken aback—more Gentiles expressed interest in joining the movement than Jews. This unexpected development led to a crucial meeting in Jerusalem around 49 CE. Thus, the focus was on deciding whether Gentiles needed to undergo conversion to Judaism first. The Apostolic Council deliberated and determined that Gentiles were not required to adopt Jewish identity markers like circumcision, dietary laws, or Sabbath observance. However, they were expected to abstain from wild game, food sacrificed to idols, and adhere to Jewish incest codes.
At first, Paul, a Pharisee, strongly opposed the new movement. Everything changed when he had a vision of Jesus, now called 'Christ,' choosing Paul as his messenger to the Gentiles.
Paul traveled through Roman Empire cities, passionately sharing Christ's teachings. Consequently, he stressed getting rid of idolatry, challenging the idea that religious beliefs pass down through family bloodlines.
Breaking from tradition, Paul said salvation didn't require following ancestral practices. He believed loyalty to Christ's teachings was enough. His letters to the Gentiles show he often got arrested for his unconventional teachings.
Paul's ideas about sin and salvation were revolutionary. He said Adam's sin brought death, but Christ's death brought eternal life. Christ, in Paul's view, made up for Adam's sin, covering and fixing the violation. Using legal terms, Paul taught that followers were "righteoused," spared from the punishment of death for their sins.
Later on, Church Father Augustine of Hippo expanded on Paul's ideas. Augustine suggested Adam and Eve's original sin stained humanity, passed through sexual intercourse. As a result, it shaped Christian views on sexuality as sinful and reinforced the idea that baptism was crucial for salvation.
Paul also predicted that when Christ came back, believers would transform into spiritual bodies and help lead God's kingdom on earth. As the years passed and Christ didn't return, the belief shifted to the idea that even though believers would physically die, they could still share in the afterlife in heaven.
Christ as God
A significant change in the context of Judaism unfolded through Paul's teachings in Philippians 2. Here, he conveyed the idea that Christ played a pivotal role in creation and descended from heaven as a representation of God in human form. This positioned Christ as deserving of worship, bearing the title "Lord" and being seen as equal to God. Additionally, resonating with Gentiles and their tales of gods on earth, the notion caused discomfort among Jews, seen as disrespectful.
The Great Jewish Revolt (66 CE) turned pivotal as Roman general Titus, later emperor, destroyed Jerusalem and the Temple in 70 CE. Christians rallied, blaming divine retribution through Rome's might on Jews resisting Jesus as the messiah.
The innovative teachings of Early Christianity proved to be a major impetus for the movement's widespread dissemination across the Empire. Freed from specific places and backgrounds, people from different areas and social groups came together in a shared religious community. Moreover, by the 2nd century CE, Christians spread from Britain and Europe to Africa and various parts of Asia, showcasing the lasting influence of these straightforward yet powerful teachings.
The Persecution of Christians (90-312 CE)
Associations and Permissions in Ancient Rome
In ancient Rome, there existed collegia—gatherings of individuals engaged in the same trade or business, convening under the protection of a deity. However, these groups required the Senate's permission, a license for assembly. Julius Caesar, in 100-44 BCE, extended this privilege to Jews, allowing them to assemble and exempting them from Rome's state cults. Conversely, Christians, not being Jews due to their lack of circumcision, were denied this right.
Imperial Cult and Christian Resistance
Building upon the Greek concept of apotheosis, Augustus initiated the imperial cult during his reign from 27 BCE to 14 CE. This practice involved deifying dead emperors, aligning them with the gods.
Over time, it evolved into the veneration of living emperors as conduits for divine mandates, serving as widespread propaganda across the Roman Empire. Christians, staunchly refusing participation, faced accusations of atheism, construed as disrespect for the gods. The Christian rejection of Roman religious practices, perceived as a threat to the empire's prosperity, was equated with treason, leading to their execution in arenas with the infamous phrase 'Christians to the lions.' Consequently, Christian leaders sought exemptions from state cults, paralleling the Jews' earlier plea."
Christian Appeals and Martyrdom
Over the next 300 years, Christian leaders persistently sought the same exemption from state cults as the Jews, encountering consistent refusals until 313 CE. Adopting a concept akin to the Maccabees, Christians asserted that dying for their faith instantly transported them to the presence of God, deeming them martyrs. Martyrdom, believed to absolve all sins, became central to Christian beliefs.
Later, in legendary literature known as martyrology, the vivid details of their trials and tribulations were documented.
Persecution and Scapegoating
While persecution was sporadic, it intensified during times of crisis. Natural disasters such as earthquakes, plagues, inflation, famine, drought, and border invasions were interpreted as signs of divine anger. Christians, viewed as convenient scapegoats, faced severe persecutions during the reigns of Decius in 251 CE and Diocletian in 302/303 CE.
Establishing the Church
Oldest Christian Church in Iraq formally known as Babylon. Anticipation and Institutionalization. As the middle of the 2nd century unfolded, Christians found themselves navigating a prolonged wait for the anticipated kingdom of God. The return of Christ, initially expected imminently, was now viewed as a future event. During this interim, Christian assemblies underwent institutionalization, embracing the election of leaders and organizing around the principle that believers should live as if the kingdom were already present, finding its manifestation within the Church.
Christian communities underwent a significant shift, with few Jewish-Christians remaining.
Shift in Leadership and Community Composition. The composition of Christian communities experienced a notable change, with very few Jewish-Christians remaining. Educated converts from the dominant culture assumed leadership roles, retrospectively referred to as Church Fathers. Their writings and perspectives solidified into Christian dogma, a set of accepted beliefs shaping the identity of the group.
Ecclesiastical Structure and Roles. Drawing administrative inspiration from the Roman government, Christian communities implemented a hierarchical structure with elected bishops overseeing dioceses. Deacons, initially assisting in charitable distribution, evolved into priests, collectively forming the Christian clergy. The election of clergy members became a defining feature of the organized Church.
Sacred Authority and Celibacy. A distinctive feature emerged in the belief in the Spirit of God, initially imbued in Christ and subsequently passed on to disciples. This spirit conferred the unique power to forgive sins on earth to Christian clergy, emphasizing a sacred authority. The ideal of ascesis or asceticism gained prominence, urging Christian clergy towards celibacy and chastity as a form of discipline, elevating them as living martyrs dedicated to the Church.
Philosophical Foundations. Christian philosophy intertwined with prevailing philosophical beliefs, asserting the existence of a higher god and identifying the God of Israel as this divine being. The concept of logos, often translated as "word," was equated with Christ, portraying the organizational force in the universe.
A significant development in Christian thought was the emergence of the concepts of orthodoxy (correct belief) and heresy (incorrect belief).
Orthodoxy and Heresy. A significant development in Christian thought was the emergence of the concepts of orthodoxy (correct belief) and heresy (incorrect belief). The middle of the 2nd century witnessed the rise of 'Gnostic' communities challenging mainstream Christian teachings. The response was the creation of an extensive body of literature outlining correct beliefs, laying the groundwork for later Christian Creeds. This period also marked the canonization of the New Testament, with only four gospels recognized as authentic.
Separation from Judaism. In the aftermath of the Bar-Kokhba Revolt in 135 CE, Christian leaders sought to dissociate Christianity from Judaism. However, to align with Roman expectations, Christian leaders presented Christians as patriotic citizens and petitioned emperors to recognize their antiquity as the true Jews of God's original covenant. Allegorical interpretations of Jewish Scriptures became a literary device to showcase the pre-existence of Christ in the Jewish narrative.
Unique Identity of Christianity. Christianity emerged as a distinct religious system, no longer confined by ethnic Jewish identity or aligned with the dominant culture. It became a unique blend, incorporating elements from both spheres, shaping the identity and trajectory of the growing Christian movement.
The Conversion of the Roman Empire to Christianity
A Turning Point: Constantine's Vision and Victory
In the transformative year of 312 CE, life took an unexpected turn for Christians as Constantine I, vying to secure sole rulership of the Roman Empire, engaged in a decisive clash with his Western Empire rival, Maxentius. The eve before the Battle at the Milvian Bridge in Rome, Constantine experienced a vision, witnessing either the sign of the cross or the first two letters of Christ's name, chi/rho, accompanied by the directive "en toutoi nika" ("in this sign conquer"). Emerging victorious against Maxentius, Constantine attributed the triumph to the Christian god, altering the course of Christianity's fate.
Legal Recognition: The Edict of Milan (313 CE)
The tide turned further with the Edict of Milan in 313 CE, a historic decree that granted Christians the long-awaited permission to assemble. Although Constantine's conversion didn't instantaneously Christianize the Empire, it bestowed legal standing upon Christianity. Demonstrating favoritism, Constantine initiated policies benefiting Christians, exempting the clergy from taxes, appointing Christians to magistrate roles, and allocating funds for the construction of churches.
Mediation and Unity: Constantine as Supreme Patron
A pivotal moment arose as Constantine, faced with a divided Church grappling with the forgiveness of bishops who had committed apostasy during Diocletian's persecution, assumed the role of mediator. Opting for a policy of "forgive and forget" in order to foster unity, Constantine elevated himself to the official head of the Church, positioned as the supreme patron of Christianity. Aligning with the views of the Church Fathers, he enforced a stringent stance reminiscent of Rome's past persecution: dissenting from his version of Christianity was labeled as heresy and considered an act of treason. Constantine's strategic moves reshaped the landscape of Christianity within the Roman Empire, marking a profound shift in the religion's status and influence.
The Council of Nicaea
Navigating Monotheistic Tensions: The Arian Controversy
As followers of Jesus grappled with the challenge of worshipping him as a god while upholding Jewish monotheism, a significant theological dilemma emerged. Arius, a presbyter in the church at Alexandria in the early 4th century, proposed a perspective that questioned the equality of God and Christ. Claiming that if God created everything, including Christ, then Christ was subordinate—a created being. This ignited riots in Alexandria and various cities, prompting Constantine to intervene.
The Nicene Council (325 CE): Defining Christian Orthodoxy
In response to the escalating conflict, Constantine summoned 217 bishops to the city of Nicaea in 325 CE for a pivotal conference. The Nicene Council engaged in intense debates, ultimately voting to affirm the identity of God and Christ as sharing the same ethereal substance and existing from the beginning of time. This decision solidified the Christian doctrine and preserved the monotheistic essence inherited from traditional Judaism.
Constantine's Dual Role: Head of State and Church
Emphasizing his dual role as the head of both state and church, Constantine enacted innovative measures to standardize Christian beliefs. He initiated the creation of the Nicene Creed, a declaration of faith aimed at preventing heresy. In this creed, the oneness of God and Christ was affirmed, establishing a doctrinal foundation for Christianity.
Ecclesiastical Mandates and Christian Practices
Constantine's influence extended beyond theological matters. He ordered the production of 50 copies of the gospels, contributing to the official recognition of the four canonical gospels. The Emperor also sought to unify Christian practices, standardizing the celebration of Easter and establishing December 25 as the official date for Christ's birth, merging Christian beliefs with Roman traditions from Saturnalia.
Theological Debates and Councils: The Continuing Quest for Orthodoxy
While the Nicene Creed provided a foundational statement of belief, it did not quell theological debates. Over subsequent centuries, multiple Councils convened to address and refine details, a trend that persisted through the Middle Ages. Theodosius I, remembered as a staunch advocate of orthodoxy, marked a turning point in 381 CE by issuing an edict that officially ended native cults in the ancient world.
The Rise of Orthodoxy and the Term "Pagan"
Theodosius I's edict signaled the demise of native cults, leading to the destruction of temples and the banishment of the Olympic Games dedicated to the gods. The term "pagan," a derogatory label coined by Christians, stigmatized those who had not embraced Christianity, marking a cultural shift that extended well beyond Theodosius I's reign. This era laid the groundwork for the dominance of Christian orthodoxy and the marginalization of alternative beliefs.
Monasticism and the Veneration of Saints
Firstly, Origins of Monasticism: Anthony of Egypt
In the mid-3rd century CE, the seeds of monasticism sprouted in Egypt, finding its pioneer in Anthony of Egypt (251-356 CE). Anthony boldly rejected the conventional norms of worldly life, opting for isolation and wholehearted dedication to God. Thus, his retreat to a desert cave marked the beginning of a profound movement. Inspired by Anthony's example, men and women ventured into the desert to live as hermits, collectively known as the "Desert Fathers and Mothers." This ascetic lifestyle not only epitomized piety but also laid the groundwork for the monastic orders that flourished in the Middle Ages.
Secondly, Monasticism and Ancient Inspirations: Hero Cults and Patron/Client Relationships
Christian monasticism drew inspiration from ancient Greek hero cults and the dynamics of patron/client relationships. Greek cities established hero cults around the tombs of revered figures, attracting pilgrims seeking divine mediation and blessings. In a parallel trajectory, Christians, starting in the 4th century CE, turned to the tombs of martyrs as sacred pilgrimage sites. These martyrs, akin to the heroes of old, evolved into patron saints. Towns and cities boasting the grave of a martyr gained prominence as destinations for devout pilgrims.
Finally, The Transformation of Martyrs into Patron Saints
In a strategic move in order to dispel idolatrous associations in repurposed public buildings turned into churches, Christians began transferring the bones of martyrs into the walls. This practice, believed to imbue the structure with sacredness, contributed to the elevation of churches as consecrated spaces. The relics, encompassing bones and items that once touched martyrs, emerged as powerful symbols, fostering a thriving relic trade across the empire. This tradition endures as a significant aspect of the Catholic Church, symbolizing the connection between the earthly and the divine.
The Emergence of the Papal Institution
The Shift Begins: Rome's Sack in 410 CE
The start of big changes for the Papacy dates back to the sack of Rome in 410 CE by Alaric I, the Visigothic king. This event triggered a decline in the Western Roman Empire.
Attila the Hun's Threat: 450 CE
Things got worse with Attila the Hun invading Italy in 450 CE. Attila's attacks on several cities signaled a looming danger to Rome.
Leo I, the Negotiator (400-461 CE): Shaping the Papal Institution
Facing Attila's aggression, Bishop Leo I, also known as Leo the Great, played a vital role in negotiating with the Hun leader to spare Rome. Leo's unique role went beyond just spiritual leadership, setting the groundwork for the Papacy.
Getting the Title 'Patriarch of the West
Recognizing Leo's important role, he got the title 'Patriarch of the West.' This was a significant moment as it also saw the first use of the term 'Pope' for Leo, taken from the Greek word for father, 'popa.'
Claiming Peter's Importance: Looking Back
The Pope's authority got a boost by claiming Saint Peter as the first pope of Rome, highlighting Peter's importance in the papal lineage. Leo I's various roles in negotiating, leading, and receiving titles marked the institutionalization of the Papacy, therefore changing the course of ecclesiastical history.
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